409 ‒ Inside modern drug development: the science, economics, and regulatory hurdles

The gist

1. Start drug discovery with large unmet needs, then work backward through regulatory and manufacturing constraints to choose the right molecular format.
   The Transformed Cell
2. Antibodies reach human trials at roughly 30% success compared to much lower rates for small molecules, largely because their specificity limits off-target toxicity.
3. Bagramab grew muscle about 30% in mice but only 4 to 8% in elderly humans, showing how age and species differences shrink real-world results.
4. A typical startup needs $20 to 30 million to reach early human dosing, and funding rounds should include efficacy signals, not just safety data.